STONE PAGODAS: Resting Places for the Buddha

by PARK AH-YEON Associate Curator, Gyeongju National Museum

In ancient India, a pagoda was called as thupa in Pali and stupa in Sanskrit, both words meaning a “grave” or “resting place for an admirable person.” As Buddhism flourished in India, the term came to refer to “the tomb of the Buddha.” When Buddhist texts were translated into literary Chinese, thupa and stupa were transcribed into Chinese characters “ 塔婆 ” (Kr. tappa) or “ 窣堵婆 ” (Kr. soldopa), and over time these compound words were shortened to just a single character “ 塔 ” (Kr. tap). Subsequently these structures in China were associated with the Enlightened One, the Buddha.

Pagodas underwent changes depending on the countries in which they were built. In India, artisans used baked mud to create dome-shaped structures, while in China the pagodas were built out of bricks, and many of them in Japan were made of wood. On the other hand, the Koreans eventually preferred stone as the building material for pagodas, earning Korea the reputation of the “land of stone pagodas.”

Buddhism was introduced in the Korean Peninsula during the Three Kingdoms period 57 BCE–668 CE . Goguryeo, which was the closest to China geographically, became the first of the Three Kingdoms to embrace religion in 372. Baekje followed suit in 384. On the other hand, Silla officially accepted Buddhism in 527, the last of the Three Kingdoms to do so, after the monk Ichadon 506–527 was martyred.

Most Korean pagodas were built out of wood for a time after Buddhism arrived on the peninsula, but stone emerged as the material of choice from the seventh century. Wooden pagodas were vulnerable to fire, and few could last for a long time, while stone was seen as a way to overcome this problem.

Goguryeo pagodas are known only from records as no example survived intact. Baekje made pagodas distinct from Silla ones. The oldest extant example of stone pagodas from Baekje stands on the former site of Mireuksa Temple, the largest Buddhist monastery complex in the kingdom at the time, located at presentday Iksan. The structure is made of stone, but many of its structural elements originate in wooden pagodas. This pagoda is believed to have originally been nine stories high, but today only the first six stories remain. However, it still remains the largest Korean stone pagoda in terms of scale. A sarira container made of gold was discovered within the pagoda, and a gold plate found with the reliquary has an inscription that states that a Baekje queen enshrined Buddha relics here in 639 Fig.1.

The Silla stone pagodas differ from those of Baekje as they were first built like brick pagodas with stone blocks carved to resemble bricks. The oldest known example of a stone pagoda from Silla was completed in 634, the third year in the reign of Queen Seondeok r. 632–647 , at Bunhwangsa Temple, and it resembles a brick pagoda. According to records, the structure once consisted of nine stories, but only three remain today. The pagoda was made of stones carved to look like bricks. A door has been built into each of the four sides of the pagoda. Carved statues of vajrapani, called geumgangyeoksa, bare-chested warriors who serve as the guardian of the Buddhist Dharma, stand at both sides of each door, while a stone lion figure is seated at each corner of the platform upon which the pagoda is built Fig.2.

Silla conquered both Baekje and Goguryeo unifying the Korean Peninsula and fusing the distinct cultures of Three Kingdoms. In the process, a new type of stone pagoda was created. The East and West Three-story Stone Pagodas at Gameunsa Temple Site, Gyeongju and the Three-story Stone Pagoda from Goseonsa Temple Site, Gyeongju represent the creation of the classic Unified Silla stone pagoda, with a two-tiered base, three-storied body, roof stones, and an ornamental finial on top Figs.3 and 4. This standardized form of stone pagoda continued to be made from the Unified Silla period and afterwards without any great changes.

By the mid-eighth century, the pagodas in Silla were crafted with immaculate form and beautiful proportions. Classic examples of this style include the Three-story Stone Pagoda at Bulguksa Temple, Gyeongju Fig.5, and the East and West Three-story Stone Pagodas from Galhangsa Temple Site in Gimcheon.

Some pagodas with novel shapes also appeared from the mid-eighth century onwards, among the most famous being Dabotap Pagoda at Bulguksa Temple. The structure is paired with Threestory Stone Pagoda which occupies the opposite end of the same courtyard. They represent a reenactment of a passage in the Lotus Sutra, in which the Ancient Buddha (Prabhutaratna) appears in his stupa to hear the Historic Buddha (Shakyamuni) preach on the Vulture Peak. Dabotap Pagoda displays amazing stone construction techniques and a flawless sense of proportion Fig.6. Uniquely shaped pagodas were also made, such as those featuring four stone lion figures in place of the base or with a niche in the first-story of the body Figs.7 and 8.

In addition to altered shapes, some pagodas from this period feature figures engraved on the outer surface of the base stone or body stone. The images are of the Buddha, bodhisattvas, four heavenly kings, or eight classes of supernatural beings from the Lotus Sutra (deva 天 , naga 龍 , yaksa 夜叉 , gandharva 乾闥婆 , asura 阿修羅 , garuda 迦樓羅 , kinnara 緊那羅 , and mahoraga 摩喉羅迦 ). They either serve as objects of veneration by the faithful or as guardians of the relics stored inside the pagoda. The pagoda surface is decorated to beautify the pagoda, which is both a structure in which Shakyamuni’s relics are enshrined as well as one that symbolizes the Buddha himself. From the ninth century, Korean stone pagodas began to be made smaller and rather than the structural elements the focus was on beautiful, ornate decoration, reflecting the perception of pagodas as works of craftsmanship Fig.9.

The Goryeo Dynasty 918–1392 produced the most pagodas both in terms of quantity and variety. During the Three Kingdoms period and Unified Silla Kingdom, pagodas were built mostly in a predetermined style and were centered on the capital and the royal family. On the other hand, pagodas in Goryeo differed according to the region and the social class of the sponsors. Goryeo stone pagodas are more elegant than their Silla counterparts, and they impart a distinct sense of rusticity. In addition, the pagodas may come with more than four sides and many stories, and sometimes they show foreign stylistic influences. One of the best examples of strong foreign influence is the Ten-story Stone Pagoda from Gyeongcheonsa Temple Site featuring diverse engravings on the body, which has the detailed craftsmanship typical of a wooden structure. This structure provides a look at the features of wooden structures of the time. The Buddha figures that cover the outside surface are an excellent source for iconographic research Fig.10.

Far fewer new pagodas were built during the Joseon Dynasty 1392–1897 than in the previous periods. Since stone pagodas were made of a material that was long lasting by nature, many pagodas from previous periods remained standing, reducing the need to build more. The emphasis was therefore placed on preserving and repairing ancient pagodas during the restoration work in temple complexes in the years after the Imjin War 1592–1598 with Japan. In Joseon, pagodas were built smaller compared to those from previous periods, and either had many stories on a four-sided body or succeeded the tradition of many-story pagoda with a many-sided body from the Goryeo Dynasty.

Korean stone pagodas were built continuously under Buddhist influence from the Three Kingdoms through to the Joseon periods. These structures served as a symbol of state protection and were objects to which individuals prayed to build up their religious merit so that they might be reborn in the paradise of the Pure Land. Stone pagodas were made to enshrine the sarira, or remains of Shakyamuni, and are therefore beautiful masterpieces made with exquisite craftsmanship and great devotion.